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Water Info
Pure WaterWorks & Coffee Co.
HEALTH
Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype?
While bottled water marketing conveys images of purity, inadequate regulations offer no assurance.
Sales of bottled water in this country have exploded in recent years, largely as a result of a public perception of purity driven by advertisements and packaging labels featuring pristine glaciers and crystal-clear mountain springs. But bottled water sold in the United States is not necessarily cleaner or safer than most tap water, according to a four-year scientific study recently made public by NRDC.
NRDC's study included testing of more than 1,000 bottles of 103 brands of bottled water. While most of the tested waters were found to be of high quality, some brands were contaminated: about one-third of the waters tested contained levels of contamination -- including synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic -- in at least one sample that exceeded allowable limits under either state or bottled water industry standards or guidelines.
A key NRDC finding is that bottled water regulations are inadequate to assure consumers of either purity or safety, although both the federal government and the states have bottled water safety programs. At the national level, the Food and Drug Administration is responsible for bottled water safety, but the FDA's rules completely exempt waters that are packaged and sold within the same state, which account for between 60 and 70 percent of all bottled water sold in the United States (roughly one out of five states don't regulate these waters either). The FDA also exempts carbonated water and seltzer, and fewer than half of the states require carbonated waters to meet their own bottled water standards.
Even when bottled waters are covered by the FDA's rules, they are subject to less rigorous testing and purity standards than those which apply to city tap water (See Table 1 of NRDC's bottled water report for further comparisons and explanations). For example, bottled water is required to be tested less frequently than city tap water for bacteria and chemical contaminants. In addition, bottled water rules allow for some contamination by E. coli or fecal coliform (which indicate possible contamination with fecal matter), contrary to tap water rules, which prohibit any confirmed contamination with these bacteria. Similarly, there are no requirements for bottled water to be disinfected or tested for parasites such as cryptosporidium or giardia, unlike the rules for big city tap water systems that use surface water sources. This leaves open the possibility that some bottled water may present a health threat to people with weakened immune systems, such as the frail elderly, some infants, transplant or cancer patients, or people with HIV/AIDS.
Ironically, public concern about tap water quality is at least partly responsible for the growth in bottled water sales, which have tripled in the past 10 years. This bonanza is also fueled by marketing designed to convince the public of bottled water's purity and safety, marketing so successful that people spend from 240 to over 10,000 times more per gallon for bottled water than they typically do for tap water.
In fact, about one-fourth of bottled water is actually bottled tap water, according to government and industry estimates (some estimates go as high as 40 percent). And FDA rules allow bottlers to call their product "spring water" even though it may be brought to the surface using a pumped well, and it may be treated with chemicals. But the actual source of water is not always made clear -- some bottled water marketing is misleading, implying the water comes from pristine sources when it does not. In 1995, the FDA issued labeling rules to prevent misleading claims, but while the rules do prohibit some of the most deceptive labeling practices, they have not eliminated the problem.
Some examples of interesting labels NRDC observed include:
"Spring Water" (with a picture of a lake surrounded by mountains on the label) -- Was actually from an industrial parking lot next to a hazardous waste site.
Alasika™ -- "Alaska Premium Glacier Drinking Water: Pure Glacier Water From the Last Unpolluted Frontier, Bacteria Free" -- Apparently came from a public water supply. This label has since been changed after FDA intervention.
Vals Water -- "Known to Generations in France for its Purity and Agreeable Contribution to Health . . . Reputed to Help Restore Energy, Vitality, and Combat Fatigue" -- The International Bottled Water Association voluntary code prohibits health claims, but some bottlers still make such claims.
NRDC makes the following recommendations for improving bottled water safety precautions:
The FDA should set strict limits for contaminants of concern in bottled water. The FDA's rules should apply to all bottled water distributed nationally or within a state, carbonated or not, and bottled water standards must be made at least as strict as those applicable to city tap water supplies. Water bottlers should be required to disclose water source, treatments and other key information as is now required of tap water systems. A penny-per-bottle fee should be initiated on bottled water to fund testing, regulatory programs, and enforcement at both state and national levels. State bottled water programs should be subject to federal review.
Ultimately, however, while Americans who choose to buy bottled water deserve the assurance that it is safe, the long-term solution to our drinking water problems is to ensure that safe, clean, good-tasting drinking water comes from our taps. Those who are particularly concerned about the quality of their tap water can take action by 1) calling their state drinking water program or the EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline (800 426-4791) for a list of state certified labs; and 2) purchasing filters certified by NSF International (800 NSF-MARK) to remove the contaminants of special concern to the consumer (NSF certification is not, however, a complete guarantee of safety).
Based on BOTTLED WATER: Pure Drink or Pure Hype? a March 1999 report by the Natural Resources Defense Council. NRDC undertook the study as part of a formal petition to the Food and Drug Administration calling on the agency to strengthen national bottled water regulations and oversight. For an online version of the report, see Bottled Water on the NRDC Pro web.
Natural Resources Defense Council
contact us at nrdcinfo@nrdc.org
last revised 4.29.99
Chlorine
Chlorine Use By Municipal Water Systems .
Chlorine is widely used by municipal water systems to disinfect water from bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms that cause diseases. In fact, approximately 75 percent of the municipal water systems across the United States use chlorine. Diseases such as typhoid fever and cholera that are easily spread through infected water have virtually been wiped out in the United States because of chlorine use.
What is Chlorine? Chlorine is one of the chemical elements, noted for its great power as an oxidizing agent. When dispersed in air, it was a terrible war gas. When dissolved in water, "free chlorine" attacks everything it touches, creating chemical byproducts with every reaction. Free chlorine is also produced by adding common laundry bleach to water. Some of the by-products still retain a little oxidizing power, and these are called "combined chlorine." One of them, called monochloramine, is often used by waterworks as a long term stabilizer against bacterial growth in the mains, after primary disinfection has been completed inside the treatment plant. It takes longer to kill bacteria and viruses than to react with individual molecules, so disinfection cannot be considered complete until all of the combined chlorine has been oxidized, leaving "Free Available Chlorine" (FAC). In this Issue of Water Quality, we will be discussing only free available chlorine.
Effects of Chlorine Despite its usefulness in disinfecting drinking water, there are problems associated with chlorine. Chlorine use can cause aesthetic water quality problems like a "swimming pool" taste and odor. Far more alarming are some studies that link chlorine by-products with bladder, colon and rectal cancer. One study shows that people who drink chlorinated water run a 21 percent greater risk of bladder cancer and a 38 percent greater risk of rectal cancer than people who drink water with little or no chlorine. One by-product is trihalomethanes (THMs). THMs are formed when chlorine reacts with naturally occurring organic matter in water, like decayed leaves. THMs (like chloroform) have been linked to a higher rate of cancer and have been classified as probable or possible human carcinogens by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Research also indicates that many other volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) are also often present in water that has been treated with chlorine.
History of Chlorine and Water Treatment Chlorine was first used to disinfect water in the United States in the early 1900s. At the time, outbreaks of cholera and typhoid fever spread by the water system were common and severe. In fact, major U.S. cities were suffering 100 or more typhoid deaths per 100,000 persons. Within 10 years after chlorine was introduced into the water system, the death rate fell dramatically. Since then, chlorine has been a primary means of chemically treating water. In the mid-1970s, research determined that VOCs, including chloroform and the other THMs, were present in drinking water that was treated with chlorine. Subsequent tests revealed that these compounds were not found in the same water prior to chlorine disinfection. Consequently, in 1979 the EPA set a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 0.1 milligrams per liter for THMs. Recognizing the need to completely eliminate THMs from drinking water, the EPA has set a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) of zero for THMs. An MCLG is simply a target point, not an enforceable limit. This standard applies only to water treatment systems serving more than 10,000 people, which covers about 79 percent of the U.S. population. For further protection, the EPA is in the process of establishing a rule which further reduce the limits on the amount of disinfectants and disinfection by-products that can be present in municipally treated water. In the meantime, many municipal water systems are continuing to use chlorine to disinfect water.
Detecting Chlorine in Your Water Determining whether chlorine is present in your water is sometimes as simple as smelling or tasting your water. If your water smells or tastes like a swimming pool, the cause of that smell or odor most likely is chlorine. To be certain if chlorine is used in your water system, call your local health department or water provider. Sometimes, however, chlorine is not as easily detected. To know for certain whether chlorine is present, have your water tested. Your local water supplier or state health department should be able to provide you with the name of a certified water testing laboratory in your area. Testing for chlorine alone is not expensive, but the average cost for a complete water test varies, depending upon the number of contaminants you wish to test for. However, a good general test for most common contaminants usually can be conducted for less than $150.
Reducing Chlorine In Your Water While there is no way to prevent the addition of chlorine in your municipal water supply, there is a way to remove or reduce chlorine and chlorine by-products from your water before you drink or cook with it. This can be done simply and cost effectively with a point-of-use (POU water filtration system certified by NSF International for the reduction of chlorine, THMs an VOCs. NSF is an independent testing agency that sets product standards for manufacturers of POU systems. Typically the size of a household fire extinguisher, POU systems designed for the consumer are installed under the kitchen sink and the filtered water is served through a dedicated drinking water faucet. Commercial systems are large in size due to their increased capacity and are typically wall-mounted near the incoming water line. As water travels through the POU system, sediment, particles, bacteria and harmful chemicals are removed by the system's main ingredient (most frequently activated carbon). Activated carbon is an extremely porous material that attracts and holds harmful contaminants in the water through a process known as adsorption The result is better tasting and cleaner water with fewer contaminants. Recently a new filtration material which also removes chlorine very well has entered commerce. A simple copper-zinc alloy, it is readily oxidized by chlorine, but it does not have the great adsorptive surface area of activated carbon. Depending on the model, PO systems are capable of correcting most water problems, including chlorine removal; the reduction of lead, toxins, THMs, VOCs and asbestos and the removal of parasitic cysts such a Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Everpure manufactures many different filtration systems which are Class I Certified by NSF International for the removal of disinfectant chlorine from the incoming water supply.
Phone: 303-757-1110
Pure Waterworks & Coffee Co.
1279 S. Cherokee St., Denver, CO 80223
303-757-1110
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